My wife, Rosemarie, and I minister together at IES Bandung, an international Assemblies of God church in Indonesia. I am the teaching pastor, but Rosemarie is lead pastor.

We grew up in a church tradition that barred women from ministry leadership. Like me, Rosemarie sensed God’s call to global ministry as a child. While people encouraged me in my calling, however, Rosemarie learned early in life she would be limited in how she could serve God’s kingdom. She could be a pastor’s wife, but not a pastor.

To this day, cultural biases shape people’s expectations of our ministry roles. Newcomers assume I am the lead pastor and refer to Rosemarie as “the pastor’s wife.”

Tragically, misunderstanding of the apostle Paul’s position on women in ministry keeps many women from fulfilling God’s calling and robs the Church of their gifts.

A key passage at the center of this debate is 1 Timothy 2:8–15. Writing to his young protégé in Ephesus, the apostle Paul seems to indicate Christian women should shut up and yield to male leadership. But is that really what Paul had in mind?

Ephesian World

Understanding this passage requires careful consideration of the original situation, setting, and characters.

Paul’s attitude toward women in ministry elsewhere should inform interpretation of his guidance to Timothy.

Romans 16 is particularly instructive. In his personal greetings, Paul commended the ministries of multiple women, including Phoebe, a deacon at Cenchreae (verses 1–2); Priscilla, who led a house church alongside her husband, Aquilla (verses 3–5); Mary, a hard worker (verse 6); Junia, an apostle (verse 7); and Tryphena, Tryphosa, and Persis, who labored diligently for the Lord (verse 12).

Indeed, Paul named and praised more female than male church leaders in Romans 16.

If Paul commended female ministers, there must be more to his seeming prohibition of women leading in 1 Timothy. Otherwise, Paul’s teaching on the subject would be incoherent and inconsistent.

Timothy, whose ancestry was both Jewish and Greek, joined the work of Paul and Silas in Acts 16.

After placing Timothy in a leadership position at Ephesus, Paul urged him to correct false doctrine in that church (1 Timothy 1:3–4). When reading 1 Timothy, it is important to remember this was Paul’s main concern.

Aquila and Priscilla were part of Paul’s ministry team in Ephesus and Corinth (Acts 18:18–19). Upon introducing them in Acts 18:2, Luke named Aquila first, in keeping with cultural convention. Afterward, both Luke and Paul gave Priscilla the place of prominence in all but one instance (1 Corinthians 16:19), suggesting she filled the more influential ministry role (Acts 18:18–19,26; Romans 16:3; 2 Timothy 4:19).

In Ephesus, an Alexandrian Jew named Apollos encountered this couple. Apollos already had an effective speaking ministry, but his knowledge of Jesus was incomplete (Acts 18:24–25).

Verse 26 says, “When Priscilla and Aquila heard him, they invited him to their home and explained to him the way of God more adequately.”

Misunderstanding of the apostle Paul’s position on women in ministry keeps many women from fulfilling God’s calling and robs the Church of their gifts.

Not only was Priscilla part of this training, but she likely took the lead. She taught and corrected a man without censure. Apollos went on to effective ministry in Corinth (Acts 18:27–19:1; 1 Corinthians 1:12; 3:4–6,22).

Meanwhile, Paul returned to Ephesus, where he introduced believers to water baptism in the name of Jesus and the baptism in the Holy Spirit (Acts 19:1–7). For two years, Paul taught powerfully there with miraculous signs (verses 8–12).

Paul’s ministry in Ephesus resulted in mass repentance. Practitioners of sorcery burned scrolls valued at 50,000 drachmas — the equivalent of nearly 136 years of wages (19:18–20).

The main temple of Artemis was located in Ephesus, and the gospel’s spread angered shrine craftsmen (Acts 19:23–41).

Paul rightly taught that “gods made by human hands are no gods at all” (Acts 19:26). But to many in Ephesus, Artemis was real. Opponents of Paul’s message shouted, “Great is Artemis of the Ephesians!’” (verse 34).

In Nobody’s Mother, Sandra Glahn describes Artemis as second only to Zeus in importance within the Greco-Roman pantheon.

Ephesian converts to Christianity lived in the shadow of pagan goddess worship. Indeed, the cult of Artemis is key to understanding 1 Timothy 2:8–15.

Problems in the Church

Both men and women in Ephesus needed correction.

Paul addressed the men first, telling them to “pray, lifting up holy hands without anger or disputing” (1 Timothy 2:8).

Conflict was clearly an issue during Ephesian gatherings. In outlining qualifications for overseers, Paul told Timothy to select individuals who were “not violent but gentle” and “not quarrelsome” (1 Timothy 3:3).

These passages also suggest women were not the only ones causing problems.

As Paul began addressing women in 1 Timothy 2:9, his remarks were a continuation of what he had already said to men. The Greek word translated “I also want” is hōsautōs, which means “in the same way.”

Paul told the women to “dress modestly, with decency and propriety, adorning themselves, not with elaborate hairstyles or gold or pearls or expensive clothes, but with good deeds, appropriate for women who profess to worship God” (verses 9–10).

This was not a rabbit trail about dress codes. Paul didn’t want Christ followers to present themselves as devotees of Artemis.

In Wealth in Ancient Ephesus and the First Letter to Timothy, Gary G. Hoag analyzes Xenophon’s Ephesiaca, a first-century novel. This ancient Greek work describes life, dress, and behavior in Ephesus, specifically by followers of Artemis.

Hoag identifies significant overlap between Xenophon’s portrayal and Paul’s language in 1 Timothy 2:9–10. In fact, Hoag writes, “Nearly every word in 1 Timothy 2:9–10 appears in Ephesiaca.”

According to Hoag, the braided hair and jewelry Paul describes were so intertwined with Artemis worship that Paul’s prohibitions “may represent instruction to cease participation in cultic activities.”

The Church’s witness was at stake. Among other things, Paul wanted congregants to avoid sending mixed messages about whose followers they were. He had similar concerns when instructing Corinthian men and women regarding hairstyles and head coverings (1 Corinthians 11:2–16).

Modern readers might not immediately recognize Paul’s allusions to Artemis in 1 Timothy 2:8–15, but the original audience would have understood.

Ephesian converts to Christianity lived in the shadow of pagan goddess worship. Indeed, the cult of Artemis is key to understanding 1 Timothy 2:8–15.

Still speaking to women, Paul turned his attention to teaching and authority: “A woman should learn in quietness and full submission. I do not permit a woman to teach or to assume authority over a man; she must be quiet” (verses 11–12).

It is important to note that the only imperative in these verses is “a woman should learn.” What Paul expected of women is a serious commitment to learning and discipleship.

While the Greek word Paul used, hēsuchia, can refer to silence, it is more accurately translated here as “in a calm state.” Paul used the same term in 2 Thessalonians 3:12 when telling disruptive people to settle down and engage in honest work.

“Submission” is a loaded word in many churches. Nevertheless, Gordon D. Fee points out that Paul did not specify to whom women are to submit.

Men in Paul’s time who trained under a rabbi were expected to listen with quiet respect. The son of Paul’s teacher, Gamaliel, wrote, “I have found naught better for a man than silence.”

Paul instructed women to do the same. He wanted them to learn and grow with the calm, attentive demeanor of a leader in training.

When women in Corinth were disruptive during gatherings, Paul sought to calm that situation as well (1 Corinthians 14:34–35). Again, this was not a total ban on speaking. It is clear from 1 Corinthians 11:5 that women were among those who prophesied. Paul’s remarks were part of a broader call for orderly worship.

Paul’s Purpose

In 1 Timothy 2:12, Paul made a statement some claim excludes women from ministry: “I do not permit a woman to teach or to assume authority over a man; she must be quiet.”

Paul then points to Genesis: “For Adam was formed first, then Eve. And Adam was not the one deceived; it was the woman who was deceived and became a sinner. But women will be saved through childbearing — if they continue in faith, love and holiness with propriety” (verses 13–15).

The word “for” (gar) shows there is a connection between verses 13–15 and Paul’s previous statements. But how does the order of creation relate to women teaching? Is Paul blaming the woman for original sin? What does any of it have to do with childbearing?

This is all part of Paul’s call to renounce idolatry. In verses 9–10, Paul told female Ephesian believers to avoid even the appearance of worshipping at the altar of Artemis. In verses 13–15, Paul refuted a set of false beliefs that appealed especially to women.

As Glahn explains, Artemis was the virgin goddess of midwifery. Maternal mortality was high in ancient times, and women looked to the goddess for help during childbirth.

Many also considered Artemis the mother of all life. In ancient literature, Artemis was born nine days before her twin brother, Apollo. Her birth order and persistent connection in the Greco-Roman world with the Egyptian goddess Isis contributed to the notion that man originated from woman.

Paul countered this by reminding the Ephesians what Scripture teaches: “Adam was formed first, then Eve” (verse 13).

The emphasis on Eve’s deception in verse 14 is likely a refutation of another detail in the story of Artemis. Hoag notes the writings of Xenophon relate an Ephesian creation myth in which the man was deceived.

Paul’s point was not that women are inherently more vulnerable to spiritual deception. Elsewhere in his correspondence with Timothy, Paul called out sinful men (1 Timothy 1:19–20; 2 Timothy 2:17–18; 3:8). And in Titus 3:3, Paul included himself among those who had been deceived before coming to Christ.

The scrolls of sorcery in Acts 19:19 were emblematic of the deception that gripped much of the population in Ephesus. Ancient sources link Artemis with incantations and magic.

The purpose of Paul’s letter was to stop false teaching within the Ephesian church, among both men and women (1 Timothy 1:3). His references to “old wives’ tales” (1 Timothy 4:7) and “busybodies who talk nonsense” (1 Timothy 5:13) may be allusions to witchcraft.

Paul’s statement about childbearing helps explain why women in particular were drawn to cultic practices associated with Artemis, sometimes even after conversion to Christianity. In Ephesus and across the Roman empire, women relied on Artemis to spare them a painful delivery — or worse.

Notably, ancient documents address Artemis as “savior.” By contrast, Paul teaches that God is our Savior through Christ (1 Timothy 1:1; 2:3; 4:10).

The assurance in 1 Timothy 2:15 that “women will be saved through childbearing — if they continue in faith, love and holiness with propriety” makes it clear that someone saves, but it is not Artemis.

Without mentioning Artemis by name, Paul rejected her ability to save and proclaimed God’s salvific power. Explicitly naming Artemis might have endangered Timothy and the other believers. Yet Paul connected with the congregation using language they could easily comprehend.

What Paul Prohibited

This is the context of Paul’s controversial statement in 1 Timothy 2:12: “I do not permit a woman to teach or to assume authority over a man; she must be quiet.”

The crucial issue here is what Paul means by authentein, the word translated “assume authority” in the NIV.

Older translations, such as the King James Version, use more forceful language: “usurp authority.”

While authentein appears only once in the Greek New Testament, there are multiple examples of its use in earlier sources, including the Greek translation of some apocryphal texts.

About a century before Paul wrote 1 Timothy, the Wisdom of Solomon used the word to refer to parents murdering children. The paterfamilias, the oldest living male in a Roman household, had complete legal authority over his children and all family possessions. This included the power of life and death.

Despite the surrounding patriarchal culture, leadership seems to have been a normative role for women in the Early Church.

Notably, Paul did not use his usual term for authority, exousia, which appears 27 times in his letters. Perhaps Paul had the specific authority of the paterfamilias in mind.

Instead of authority in a general sense, Paul may have been referring to the kind of power that can lead to violence. If women were crossing those cultural and ethical boundaries, it would certainly explain why Paul felt he needed to address it.

The phrase “teach or to assume authority” comes from a Greek construction that can mean “either/or” but can also suggest cause and effect. If Paul had the latter in mind, we might read 1 Timothy 2:12 this way: “I do not permit a woman to teach in order to claim ultimate authority (of a paterfamilias) over a man; she must be calm.”

In 1 Timothy 2:8, Paul told men not to be violent. He then instructed women to learn (verse 11) and to avoid teaching in a way that would harm others (verse 12), especially by promoting false doctrine.

Glahn observes, “The author’s instruction suggests that both husbands and wives in the assembly need to calm down.”

Hoag frames Paul’s instructions this way:

Women must cease propagating the heresy that promoted the woman as a usurper of authority from man, the woman as the originator of man, and that man was the one deceived in the creation account. Though these religious realities can be linked to the myths associated with Artemis and Isis, women must no longer teach them.

Paul started 1 Timothy 2:8–15 by addressing calm behavior by men and then women. He then instructed women to learn and engage in a way that did not violate civil order. He followed this with affirmation of what Scripture teaches, clearly opposing the cult of Artemis.

Women Leaders

Did Paul forbid all teaching by women? Did he limit women to ministry only among other females?

The evidence strongly suggests Paul held neither position. Besides many examples of female leadership in Paul’s writing, the Acts account makes it clear that Priscilla taught Apollos.

Despite the surrounding patriarchal culture, leadership seems to have been a normative role for women in the Early Church.

Timothy was to pass what he heard from Paul “to reliable people who will also be qualified to teach others” (2 Timothy 2:2, emphasis added). The Greek word anthrōpos is generic for “human being” rather than specific for “man.” Those teachers presumably included women like Priscilla.

In fact, Paul ended that same letter by extending greetings to Priscilla and Aquila (4:19). This would have been an odd thing to do if Paul opposed women in leadership.

Paul repeatedly praised women in ministry, holding them up as examples for others to follow. First Timothy 2:11–12 is best understood not as a contradiction of that stance, but a unique situation requiring context.

Based in part on that passage, our formative church culture would have insisted that Rosemarie and I are disobeying God in our ministry roles. But that is not an accurate representation of Paul’s view.

Paul celebrated faithful ministry by both men and women. He also refuted any teaching — regardless of the messenger or setting — that does not align with biblical truth.

In modern times, Pentecostal women have answered the call to take the gospel around the world, plant churches, pastor congregations, lead parachurch organizations, and teach God’s Word.

Rather than placing barriers in the paths of people God has called, we should empower them to serve and welcome their Kingdom contributions.

There is likely someone like Rosemarie in your congregation. She might be wrestling with God’s calling and wondering whether there is a place for her in vocational ministry. How will you respond?

Paul’s words concerning the deacon Phoebe provide a good starting point: “I ask you to receive her in the Lord in a way worthy of his people and to give her any help she may need from you” (Romans 16:2).